What is the atman, the self, in Hindu teaching?

Advaita (Shankara)

For Shankara the self is one, and it is Brahman. He reads the Chandogya teaching, “It is the Self, and thou, O Svetaketu, art it” (6.8.7), as plain identity. On Gita 2.12 he says the plural “us” refers to many bodies, not many selves. On 10.20 he says one should think of the Lord as the innermost Self in the heart of all beings.

Sources for this reading

• Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7, in F. Max Müller (tr.), The Upanishads, Part I (Sacred Books of the East, vol. 1, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879). Müller died 1900: public domain. Quoted verbatim. (p. 101)
• The Bhagavad-Gita, with the commentary of Sri Sankaracharya, translated by A. Mahadeva Sastri (2nd ed., Mysore: G. T. A. Printing Works, 1901) (commentary on 2.12, p. 24 (leaf n51): the plural refers to the bodies, not to more than one Self; on 10.20, pp. 241–242 (leaves n268–n269); read on the page images)
• Bhagavad Gita, 2.12

Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja)

For Ramanuja the selves are many, eternal and real, each distinct from the Lord, and all beings form the Lord's body, as a body belongs to the soul within it. On Gita 2.12 he says the Lord and the souls have always existed and always will, and that the souls are many. On 10.20 he says the Lord dwells in all beings as their soul, their support, ruler and master.

Sources for this reading

• Sri Bhagavad-Gita with Sri Ramanujacharya's Visishtadvaita commentary, translated by A. Govindacharya (Madras, 1898) (commentary on 2.12, pp. 33–34 (leaf n48: souls many and distinct from the Lord); on 10.20, pp. 333–334 (leaf n334: all beings form the Lord's body, and he is their soul, support, ruler and master); read on the page images)
• Bhagavad Gita, 10.20

Dvaita (Madhva)

For Madhva each self is eternal and for ever distinct from Vishnu, who alone is independent, and from matter. It depends on Vishnu entirely, yet it truly acts: in Subba Rau's summary of Madhva, the soul, though wholly dependent on Brahman, is by nature a doer of acts and so bears responsibility for them. Freed souls stay distinct for ever, living with the Lord and under his guidance.

Sources for this reading

• S. Subba Rau (tr.), The Vedanta-Sutras with the Commentary by Sri Madhwacharya (Madras: Thompson and Co., 1904), introduction, summary of adhyaya 2, pada 3. Public domain in the US (published 1904). India and UK status not confirmed: the translator's death year has not been found, so he is summarised in our words and not quoted. (introduction: the scheme of independent and dependent reality, p. x (leaf n14); summary of adhyaya 2, pada 3, pp. xxxviii–xxxix (leaves n42–n43); summary of adhyaya 4, pada 4, p. liii (leaf n57); read on the page images)

Samkhya and Yoga

Samkhya, and Patanjali's Yoga with it, teach many selves (purushas), each pure consciousness, set apart from changing matter (prakriti). Max Müller sets the contrast plainly: for Shankara there is in reality but one Self, while for Kapila “there are many Purushas”, and their plurality is held to be eternal.

Sources for this reading

• F. Max Müller, The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (London and New York: Longmans, Green, 1899), “Atman and Purusha”. Müller died 1900: public domain. Quoted verbatim from the OCR of the scan. (pp. 373–374)

Sources

• Bhagavad Gita, 2.20
• Bhagavad Gita, 2.22
• The Upanishads, Part II, translated by F. Max Müller (The Sacred Books of the East, vol. XV; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1884) (Katha Upanishad, first Adhyaya (Nachiketas and Yama), pp. 1–15 (leaves n58–n72); Mundaka Upanishad 3.2.9 (p. 41, leaf n98): the knower of Brahman “overcomes grief”)
• Learn pages what-is-advaita-vedanta and what-is-reincarnation; children's story nachiketa-and-yama.

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