What is moksha?

Advaita (Shankara)

For Shankara, moksha is not a new state that is produced. In his words, “Release is nothing but being Brahman”. The self (atman) has always been the one Brahman; ignorance hides this, and knowledge removes the ignorance. The Mundaka Upanishad says: “He who knows that highest Brahman, becomes even Brahman” (3.2.9). Advaita teachers hold that this freedom can be known while the body still lives (jivanmukti).

Sources for this reading

• Brahma Sutra 1.1.4, Shankara's commentary, in George Thibaut (tr.), The Vedânta-Sûtras with the Commentary by Sankarâkârya, Part I (Sacred Books of the East, vol. 34, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1890). Thibaut died 1914: public domain. Quoted verbatim. (pp. 26–34; the quotation is on p. 34 (leaf n163))
• The Upanishads, Part II, translated by F. Max Müller (The Sacred Books of the East, vol. XV; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1884) (Mundaka Upanishad 3.2.9, p. 41 (leaf n98); quoted verbatim, checked on the page image)
• Brahma Sutra 4.1.15, Shankara's commentary, in Thibaut (tr.), Sacred Books of the East, vol. 38 (1896): the body of one who knows Brahman continues until the works already in motion are spent, “as in the case of the potter's wheel”. Public domain. Summarised in our words. (pp. 357–358 (leaves n368–n369), checked on the page images)
• Sangeetha Menon, “Advaita Vedanta”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Cited, not copied.

Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja)

For Ramanuja, the freed self keeps its own identity. It comes to share the Lord's nature and bliss, but it does not simply become the Lord. Ramanuja reads Brahma Sutra 4.4.17 to mean that freed souls gain great powers, “with the exception of the world-energies”: making and ruling the world belong to the Lord alone. Freedom comes through devotion (bhakti) and surrender, and through the grace of the Lord.

Sources for this reading

• George Thibaut (tr.), The Vedânta-Sûtras with the Commentary of Râmânuja (Sacred Books of the East, vol. 48, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1904), on 1.1.1 (the freed soul gains “a nature like his own”, not complete identity) and on 4.4.17–22. Thibaut died 1914: public domain. Quoted verbatim. Read in the Motilal Banarsidass photographic reprint on archive.org. (commentary on 1.1.1 (pp. 98–99 and p. 145: release through the grace of the Lord, pleased by the worshipper's devout meditation) and the last adhikarana of 4.4 (pp. 766–771))
• Sri Bhagavad-Gita with Sri Ramanujacharya's Visishtadvaita commentary, translated by A. Govindacharya (Madras, 1898) (commentary on 18.66, pp. 563–565: “hold Me as thy Sole Refuge”; a higher reading of the verse is prapatti, surrender)
• Shyam Ranganathan, “Rāmānuja (c. 1017 – c. 1137)”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Cited, not copied.

Dvaita (Madhva)

For Madhva, the freed souls live for ever with Vishnu and under his guidance. They stay distinct from him and from one another, and they never become independent as the Lord is. Each enjoys the bliss that fits its own nature, so the bliss of freed souls differs in degree. Release comes only by Vishnu's grace.

Sources for this reading

• S. Subba Rau (tr.), The Vedanta-Sutras with the Commentary by Sri Madhwacharya (Madras: Thompson and Co., 1904), introduction, summary of adhyaya 4: the released souls, having reached Brahman, enjoy their bliss for ever with him and under his guidance, and never become independent as the Lord is. Summarised, not quoted. Public domain in the US (published 1904). India and UK status not confirmed: the translator's death year has not been found. (introduction, summary of adhyaya 4, padas 2 and 4, pp. lii–liii (leaves n56–n57, checked on the page images); commentary on 3.3.20–21, pp. 193–194: the bliss of released souls differs in degree, according to their devotion)
• Valerie Stoker, “Madhva (1238—1317)”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (grace as the means of liberation; the gradation of souls). Cited, not copied.

Samkhya and Yoga (Kapila and Patanjali)

Samkhya and Yoga call the goal kaivalya, “aloneness”. The conscious self (purusha) is set apart from the changing world of matter (prakriti) and rests in itself. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras end with a chapter on kaivalya, the aim of all their practice. Max Müller explains that it means the return of the self to itself, and not to any other being.

Sources for this reading

• F. Max Müller, The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (London and New York: Longmans, Green, 1899), on Kapila's kaivalya and on the Kaivalya-pada of the Yoga Sutras. Müller died 1900: public domain. (pp. 389 and 438 (leaves n424 and n473), checked on the page images)

Sources

• Bhagavad Gita, 2.72
• Bhagavad Gita, 12.7
• Ganguli (tr.), The Mahabharata, Project Gutenberg transcription, vol. 3, Santi Parva: “the four objects or purposes (viz., Religion, Wealth, Pleasure and Emancipation)” (section CCXXXVI); after his brothers each praise dharma, artha or kama, Yudhishthira concludes that “Emancipation is productive of the highest good” (section CLXVII). Public domain in the US; India status not yet confirmed. Quoted verbatim. (Santi Parva, sections CLXVII and CCXXXVI, in the Gutenberg numbering)
• Sangeetha Menon, “Advaita Vedanta”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (moksha as the cessation of the cycle of life and death; liberation in this life). Cited, not copied.

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